Death of Caesar : The Story of History's Most Famous Assassination (9781451668827) Read online

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  Contents

  Author’s Note

  Chronology

  Cast of Characters

  Part One

  RETURN TO ROME

  1. Riding with Caesar

  2. The Best Men

  3. Decision in a Villa

  4. Caesar’s Last Triumph

  Part Two

  BLOOD ON THE STONES

  5. The Birth of a Plot

  6. Wanted: Assassins

  7. Caesar Leaves Home

  8. Murder

  9. A Republic in the Balance

  10. A Funeral to Remember

  Part Three

  THE ROAD BACK

  11. The Struggle for Italy

  12. Vengeance

  13. Augustus

  Acknowledgments

  Photographs

  A Note on Sources

  About Barry Strauss

  Notes

  Index

  To Marcia

  Author’s Note

  Ancient names are spelled following the style of the standard reference work, The Oxford Classical Dictionary, 3rd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999).

  Translations from the Greek or Latin are my own, unless otherwise noted.

  Chronology

  July 13, 100 B.C.

  Birth of Julius Caesar

  October 3, ca. 86

  Birth of Cassius

  ca. 85

  Birth of Brutus

  January 14, ca. 83

  Birth of Mark Antony

  82–80

  Dictatorship of Sulla

  April 21, ca. 81

  Birth of Decimus

  September 23, 63

  Birth of Octavian

  61

  Caesar in Further Hispania

  60

  First Triumvirate

  59

  Caesar’s first consulship

  58–50

  Caesar conquers Gaul

  Summer 57

  Battle of the Sabis

  55

  Dedication of Pompey’s Works

  53

  Battle of Carrhae

  Summer 52

  Siege of Alesia

  January 10, 49

  Caesar crosses the Rubicon

  Spring–Autumn 49

  Siege of Massilia

  August 9, 48

  Battle of Pharsalus

  September 28, 48

  Death of Pompey

  Autumn 48

  Caesar Meets Cleopatra

  April 46

  Death of Cato

  September 21–October 2, 46

  Caesar celebrates four triumphs

  September 26, 46

  Temple of Mother Venus dedicated

  March 17, 45

  Battle of Munda

  August 45

  Caesar, Antony, Decimus, and Octavian travel together

  September 13, 45

  Caesar amends will in favor of Octavian

  October 45

  Caesar’s fifth triumph

  December 31, 45

  Caesar appoints one-day consul

  January 26, 44

  “I am Caesar, not Rex”

  January–February 44

  Caesar becomes Dictator in Perpetuity

  February 15, 44

  Lupercalia; Caesar rejects diadem

  March 15, 44 B.C.

  Caesar assassinated

  March 17, 44

  Amnesty for assassins

  Caesar’s acts confirmed

  March 20, 44

  Caesar’s funeral

  June 7, 44

  Antium Conference

  August 44

  Brutus and Cassius leave Italy

  April 14, 43

  Battle of Forum Gallorum

  April 21, 43

  Battle of Mutina

  August 19, 43

  Octavian’s first consulship

  September 43

  Death of Decimus

  November 27, 43

  Second Triumvirate Established

  December 7, 43

  Death of Cicero

  October 3, 42

  First Battle of Philippi

  Death of Cassius

  October 23, 42

  Second Battle of Philippi

  Death of Brutus

  35

  Death of Sextus Pompey

  September 2, 31

  Battle of Actium

  August 1, 30

  Antony commits suicide

  August 12, 30

  Cleopatra commits suicide

  30

  Egypt becomes Roman province

  August 18, 29

  Temple of Deified Julius dedicated

  January 16, 27

  Octavian receives name Augustus

  Cast of Characters

  CAESAR’S MEN

  CAESAR (Gaius Julius Caesar), 100–44 B.C. Brilliant politician, general, and writer, he was eventually Dictator in Perpetuity. The most polarizing figure of the age, he made many Romans fear that he wanted to become king and harm their interests, and so they decided to assassinate him. Age in 44 B.C.—fifty-five.I

  OCTAVIAN (Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, born Gaius Octavius, later Imperator Caesar divi Filius and, finally, Augustus), 63 B.C.–A.D. 14. Caesar’s brilliant and ruthless grandnephew and heir made his way through the dangerous political waters of the age to become Augustus, Rome’s first emperor. Age in 44 B.C.—eighteen on the Ides of March.

  MARK ANTONY (Marcus Antonius), ca. 83–30 B.C. One of Caesar’s best generals, he was a cagey politician who defeated the assassins, became Cleopatra’s lover and one of the two most powerful men in the Roman Empire, only to be defeated by Octavian. Age in 44 B.C.—thirty-nine.

  LEPIDUS (Marcus Aemilius Lepidus), ca. 89–12 B.C. One of Caesar’s generals, a loyalist, he commanded a legion in Rome at the time of Caesar’s assassination. He was Chief Priest and eventually one of the three triumvirs but he was squeezed out by Antony and Octavian. Age in 44 B.C.—forty-five.

  THE MAIN CONSPIRATORS

  BRUTUS (Marcus Junius Brutus), ca. 85–42 B.C. Brutus’s name, eloquence, and reputation for ethical behavior made him the most famous of the assassins and their public face. On the less positive side, he had a penchant for betrayal and he squeezed money out of provincials. He wanted to kill Caesar without launching a revolution or disturbing the peace—an impossible ambition. Age in 44 B.C.—forty.

  CASSIUS (Gaius Cassius Longinus), ca. 86–42 B.C. Perhaps the man who hatched the conspiracy, Cassius was a military man and a supporter of Pompey, who only reluctantly accepted Caesar before finally turning on him. He advocated harsher measures than his brother-in-law, Brutus. Age in 44 B.C.—forty-one.

  DECIMUS (Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus), ca. 81–43 B.C. Often forgotten, Decimus was the third leader of the conspiracy against Caesar. A brilliant young general from a noble family, he rose in Gaul under Caesar and then turned on him, either out of republican principle or thwarted ambition, or both. He fought Antony in Italy and Gaul, was betrayed and executed. Age in 44 B.C.—thirty-seven.

  TREBONIUS (Gaius Trebonius), ca. 90–43 B.C. One of Caesar’s leading generals, he played a prominent role in
the conspiracy against him and was later treacherously murdered. Age in 44 B.C.—forty-six.

  CASCA (Publius Servilius Casca), died 42 B.C.? He struck the first blow against Caesar on the Ides of March. He served as People’s Tribune in 43 B.C. and then went east and fought under Brutus at Philippi, where he probably died either in battle or by suicide afterward.

  GAIUS CASCA (Gaius Servilius Casca). Brother of Publius, struck Caesar in the ribs, which might have been the fatal blow.

  CIMBER (Lucius Tillius Cimber), died 42 B.C.? Caesar liked his officer, Cimber, even though Cimber was known as a brawler and a drinker. But Cimber betrayed Caesar and signaled the start of the attack on the Ides of March by pulling the toga from Caesar’s shoulders. As governor of Bithynia, he supported Brutus and Cassius. He fought at Philippi, where he probably died.

  PONTIUS AQUILA, died 43 B.C. People’s Tribune who refused to stand during Caesar’s triumph in 45 B.C. and so offended the dictator. He might be the same Pontius Aquila whose estate was confiscated by Caesar. He served under Decimus in the fighting of 43 B.C. and fell in battle.

  THE WOMEN

  SERVILIA (Servilia Caepio), born ca. 100 B.C.–died after 42 B.C. Mother of Brutus, mother-in-law of Cassius and Lepidus, half-sister of Cato, and mistress of Caesar, the noble Servilia was one of the most well-connected and powerful women of Rome. Could anyone have been more conflicted over the plot that killed Caesar? Age in 44 B.C.—about fifty-five.

  CLEOPATRA (Cleopatra VII Philopator, Queen of Egypt), 69–30 B.C. The legendary queen was the lover of two of the most powerful Romans of the era, first Julius Caesar and then Mark Antony. Age in 44 B.C.—twenty-five.

  JUNIA TERTIA, died A.D. 22. Daughter of Servilia, wife of Cassius, and, some said, mistress of Caesar.

  CALPURNIA (Calpurnia Pisonis). Caesar’s third and last wife, she was the daughter of a noble political family. She tried in vain to stop Caesar from going to the Senate on the Ides of March. Age in 44 B.C.—thirty-three.

  FULVIA (Fulvia Flacca), ca. 75–40 B.C. Married to the politicians Clodius, Curio, and finally to Mark Antony, she was one of the most able women of the era. She may have stage-managed Antony’s role in Caesar’s funeral and she recruited an army in 41 B.C. Age in 44 B.C.—about thirty.

  PORCIA (aka Portia, full name: Porcia Catonis), died 42 B.C. Daughter of Cato, Porcia married her cousin Brutus after the death of her first husband, the staunch conservative Bibulus. Perhaps she helped turn Brutus against Caesar. In any case, he let her into the secret of the conspiracy. Age in 44 B.C.—about twenty-five.

  ATIA, died 43–42 B.C. Caesar’s niece and mother of Octavian, the future Augustus, she sent news to her son abroad about the terrible events of the Ides of March.

  SEMPRONIA (Sempronia Tuditana). Mother of Decimus, Sempronia had a reputation for brains, beauty, adultery, and revolutionary politics. She supported Catiline in 63 B.C. and invited his Gallic allies into her home.

  PAULA (Paula Valeria), wife of Decimus. Tongues wagged when in 50 B.C. she divorced her previous husband on the very day he was due home from military service abroad in order to marry Decimus. She remained loyal to him until his death.

  FRIENDS OF THE CONSPIRATORS

  CICERO (Marcus Tullius Cicero), 106–42 B.C. The greatest orator and political theorist of the age, he supported Pompey in the Civil War but remained on good terms with Caesar. He then supported the assassins, moved heaven and earth to fight Antony, gambled on an alliance with Octavian, and lost. He was executed in 42 B.C. Age in 44 B.C.—sixty-two.

  DOLABELLA (Publius Cornelius Dolabella), 70–43 B.C. A turncoat, Dolabella supported Pompey, switched to Caesar, then favored the conspirators, and then defected to Antony in return for a prominent command in the East. After treacherously murdering Trebonius, he was defeated by the armies of Cassius and committed suicide.

  CINNA (Lucius Cornelius Cinna). A praetor in 44 B.C. and Caesar’s former brother-in-law, he ostentatiously supported the assassins in public, which infuriated many people.

  OTHERS (NEUTRALS, UNCOMMITTED PARTIES, DIFFERENT GENERATION)

  CATO THE YOUNGER (Marcus Porcius Cato), 95–46 B.C. A prominent senator and a follower of Stoic philosophy, he was Caesar’s archenemy. He committed suicide rather than surrender to Caesar, an act that galvanized opposition to the dictator.

  POMPEY (Cnaeus Pompeius Magnus), 106–48 B.C. Second only to Caesar as a Roman general and statesman in the mid-first century B.C., he changed from Caesar’s ally and son-in-law to his leading opponent—and the result was civil war.

  CNAEUS POMPEY (Cnaeus Pompeius), ca. 75–45 B.C. Older son of Pompey, he was defeated by Caesar at the Battle of Munda.

  SEXTUS POMPEY (Sextus Pompeius Magnus Pius), 67–35 B.C. The younger son of Pompey, he led the naval opposition to Octavian and Antony.

  LABIENUS (Titus Labienus), died 45 B.C. Caesar’s right-hand man in Gaul, he supported Pompey in the Civil War and fought against Caesar to the bitter end.

  ATTICUS (Titus Pomponius Atticus), 110–32 B.C. Banker, Roman knight, friend, and correspondent of Cicero, and well-connected politically. Age in 44 B.C.—sixty-six.

  DEIOTARUS (King of Galatia), ca. 107–ca. 40 B.C. This wily and violent political survivor switched his support for Roman factions several times. He was accused of plotting in 47 B.C. to assassinate Caesar. Age in 44 B.C.—about sixty-three.

  * * *

  I. Age in 44 B.C. stated if known or at least roughly known.

  Part One

  RETURN

  to

  ROME

  1

  RIDING WITH CAESAR

  IN AUGUST 45 B.C., SEVEN months before the Ides of March, a procession entered the city of Mediolanum, modern Milan, in the hot and steamy northern Italian plain. Two chariots led the march. In the first stood Dictator Gaius Julius Caesar, glowing with his victory over rebel forces in Hispania (Spain).

  In the position of honor beside Caesar was Marcus Antonius—better known today as Mark Antony. He was Caesar’s candidate to be one of Rome’s two consuls next year, the highest-ranking public officials after the dictator. Behind them came Caesar’s protégé, Decimus, fresh from a term as governor of Gaul (roughly, France). Beside him was Gaius Octavius, better known as Octavian. At the age of only seventeen, Caesar’s grandnephew Octavian was already a man to be reckoned with.

  The four men had met in southern Gaul and traveled together over the Alps. They took the Via Domitia, an old road full of doom and destiny—Hannibal’s invasion route and, according to myth, Hercules’ road to Spain.

  Caesar was heading for Rome. For the second time in little over a year, he was planning to enter the capital in triumph, proclaiming military victory and an end to the civil war that began four years earlier, at the start of 49 B.C. But it was not easy to end the war, because its roots went deep. It was in fact the second civil war to tear Rome apart in Caesar’s lifetime. Each war reflected the overwhelming problems that beset Rome, from poverty in Italy to oppression in the provinces, from the purblind selfishness and reactionary politics of the old nobility to the appeal of a charismatic dictator for getting things done. And behind it all lay the dawning and uncomfortable reality that the real power in Rome lay not with the Senate or the people but with the army.

  Dark-eyed and silver-tongued, sensual and violent, Caesar possessed supreme practical ability. He used it to change the world, driven by his love for Rome and his lust for domination. Caesar’s armies killed or enslaved millions, many of them women and children. Yet after these bloodbaths he pardoned his enemies at home and abroad. These overtures of goodwill raised suspicions—could the conqueror be a conciliator?—but most had no choice but to acquiesce.

  Of all the Romans in his entourage, Caesar chose these three men—Antony, Decimus, and Octavian—for places of honor on his reentry to Italy. Why? And why would one of them betray him within seven months? And why, after Caesar’s death, were the three men able to raise armies and turn on each other in a new war that retraced
their route from northern Italy into southern Gaul?

  Consider how each of these men came to Caesar in the years before 45 B.C.

  THE RISE OF DECIMUS

  Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus, to use his full name, was a close friend of Caesar. They had worked together for at least a decade, beginning in 56 B.C. In that year, when Decimus was about twenty-five years of age, he made a sensation as Caesar’s admiral in Gaul. He won the Battle of the Atlantic, which conquered Brittany and opened the door to the invasion of England.

  First impressions are important and, in this case, accurate. War, Gaul, and Caesar were Decimus’s trademarks. He was speedy, vigorous, resourceful, and he loved to fight. He was proud, competitive, and eager for fame. Like other ambitious men of his class, he won elected office in Rome, but the capital and its corridors of power never captivated him as the Gallic frontier did.

  Decimus was born on April 21, around 81 B.C. He came from a noble family that claimed descent from the founder of the Roman republic, Lucius Junius Brutus. Decimus’s grandfather was a great general and statesman but his father was no soldier and his mother was a flirt who dallied with revolution and adultery and perhaps with Caesar, who seduced many of the married noble ladies in Rome. A great historian suggested that Decimus was Caesar’s illegitimate son. Intriguing as this theory is, it is not supported by the evidence.